Antioxidant
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power,
anthocyanin
content
and
organoleptic
performance
of
edible
flowers
Stefano
Benvenuti
∗
,
Elisa
Bortolotti,
Rita
Maggini
Department
of
Agriculture,
Food
and
Environment,
Via
Del
Borghetto,
80,
56124
Pisa,
Italy
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Article
history:
Received
21
September
2015
Received
in
revised
form
24
December
2015
Accepted
26
December
2015
Keywords:
Antioxidant
Anthocyanin
Sensory
analysis
New
food
Health
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
The
growing
need
for
nutraceutical
new
foods
has
generated
interest
in
edible
flowers.
This
flower
trait
inspired
us
to
conduct
experiments
aimed
at
evaluating
both
the
antioxidant
activity
and
anthocyanin
content
in
twelve
species
commonly
used
as
ornamental
plants.
The
antioxidant
power
of
the
edible
flowers
was
very
high
compared
to
common
vegetables
and/or
fruits.
Except
for
the
low
values
of
Borago
officinalis
(only
0.5
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
fresh
weight;
FW),
the
antioxidant
power
in
the
edible
flowers
ranged
from
3.6
for
Calendula
officinalis
to
70.4
for
Tagetes
erecta.
Part
of
this
high
antioxidant
activity
is
often
due
to
their
high
anthocyanin
content
at
least
in
the
case
of
the
more
pigmented
flowers
(red
or
blue).
For
example
in
the
red
varieties
of
Viola
×
wittrockiana,
Dianthus
×
barbatus,
Pelargonium
peltatum
the
high
anthocyanin
content
(12.4,
13.3,
12.5
mg
cyn-3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW,
respectively)
was
associated
to
a
high
antioxidant
activity.
Indeed
the
best
nutraceutical
performances
(antioxidant
and/or
antho-
cyanin
values)
were
shown
by
more
pigmented
flowers.
A
panel
test
was
also
carried
out
in
order
to
evaluate
the
different
degree
of
the
flower’s
palatability.
This
taste
evaluation
showed
a
high
biodiversity
of
sensory
profiles
showing
the
greatest
appreciation
for
Trapaeolum
majus
,
Ageratum
houstonianum
and
Viola
×
wittrockiana
.
Finally,
the
overlap
between
nutraceuticals
and
organoleptic
aspects
highlighted
promising
species
for
a
potential
market
targeting
new
foods
aimed
at
satisfying
both
taste
and
health.
©
2015
Elsevier
B.V.
All
rights
reserved.
1.
Introduction
The
growing
interest
in
nutraceuticals
and
functional
foods
has
increased
research
into
new
foods
that
are
beneficial
to
health.
Thus
the
studies
on
fruits
(
Amagase
et
al.,
2009
),
herbs
(
Wojdyło
et
al.,
2007
)
and
seeds
(
Jayaprakasha
et
al.,
2001
)
characterized
by
antiox-
idant,
free
radical
scavenging
and
anti-aging
activities
assume
a
crucial
importance,
since
these
properties
are
strongly
linked
to
the
prevention
and
care
of
chronic
illnesses
such
as
cardiovascular
diseases
(
Vivekananthan
et
al.,
2003
)
and
cancer
(
Greenlee
et
al.,
2012
).
Although
flowers
were
already
used
as
food
in
ancient
Greece
and
Rome
(
Melillo,
1994
),
they
have
only
recently
sparked
off
nutraceutical
research
(
Mlcek
and
Rop,
2011
),
focusing
on
new
agronomic
and
economic
horizons
(
Kelley
and
Biernbaum,
2000
).
Their
rich
pigmentation,
which
evolved
to
attract
pollinators
(
Grotewold,
2006
),
suggests
a
high
antioxidant
activity
that
is
of
interest
for
human
nutrition.
∗
Corresponding
author.
Fax:
+39
0502216087.
E-mail
address:
stefano.benvenuti@unipi.it
(S.
Benvenuti).
Anthocyanin
pigments
are
primarily
involved
in
this
color-
mediated
attraction
strategy
and
consequently
their
antioxidant
activity
(
Stintzing
and
Carle,
2004
)
makes
the
flowers
an
important
resource
that
could
be
agronomically
and
nutritionally
enhanced.
Indeed
these
pigmented
flavonoids
are
considered
a
very
impor-
tant
category
of
phytochemicals
in
plant
foods
due
to
their
strong
antioxidant
activity
and
other
beneficial
physicochemical
and
bio-
logical
properties
(
De
Pascual-Teresa
and
Sanchez-Ballesta,
2008
).
Highly
pigmented
fruits,
particularly
small
berries
such
as
blue-
berry,
blackberry,
cherry,
raspberry
and
strawberry
fruits,
have
been
studied
greatly
due
to
their
anthocyanin
content
and
their
consequent
strong
antioxidant
activity.
The
interest
in
these
phy-
tochemicals
has
grown
significantly
in
recent
years
due
to
the
evidence
that
they
play
a
crucial
role
in
counteracting
the
oxidative
stress
related
to
chronic
diseases
(
Li
et
al.,
2012
).
They
are
water-soluble
compounds
that
impart
color
in
plants
(leaves,
stems,
roots,
flowers
and
fruits)
to
appear
red,
purple
or
blue
according
to
the
pH
and
their
structural
features
(
Fossen
and
Andersen,
2003
).
Despite
the
fact
that
the
main
gastronomic
use
of
flowers
stems
from
their
attractive
color
(
Kelley
et
al.,
2001a,
2002
),
there
is
growing
evidence
of
their
role
as
anti-
free
radical
functional-foods,
as
is
well
demonstrated
in
several
ornamental
species
(
Barros
et
al.,
2010;
Kaisoon
et
al.,
2011;
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2015.12.052
0304-4238/©
2015
Elsevier
B.V.
All
rights
reserved.
S.
Benvenuti
et
al.
/
Scientia
Horticulturae
199
(2016)
170–177
171
Navarro-González
et
al.,
2014;
Shi
et
al.,
2009
).
As
a
source
of
antioxidants
(
Chanwitheesuk
et
al.,
2005
),
edible
flowers
have
also
been
shown
to
be
effective
as
antitumor
(
Ukiya
et
al.,
2002
),
anti-inflammatory
(
Ukiya
et
al.,
2006
)
and
antimutagenic
(
Wongwattanasathien
et
al.,
2010
)
biological
agents.
Although
the
beneficial
effects
of
flowers
as
a
new
promis-
ing
source
of
mineral
elements
in
human
nutrition
should
not
be
neglected
(
Rop
et
al.,
2012
),
care
needs
to
be
taken
regarding
the
anti-nutritional
substances
that
are
sometimes
produced
by
some
species
(
Sotelo
et
al.,
2007
).
In
any
case,
there
is
an
increasing
number
of
ornamental
(
Mlcek
and
Rop,
2011
)
and
wild
species
(
Kucekova
et
al.,
2013
)
grown
as
edible
flowers.
Unfortunately,
despite
their
agronomic
potential,
the
idea
of
eating
flowers
is
still
viewed
with
suspicion.
Indeed
it
involves
a
kind
of
neophobia
(the
reluctance
to
try
novel
foods)
since
often
a
new
food
generates
an
innate
distrust
(
Pliner
and
Hobden,
1992
)
especially
in
children
(
Dovey
et
al.,
2008
).
Consequently
it
is
neces-
sary,
first
of
all,
to
develop
nutrition
education
aimed
at
proposing
flowers
as
a
common
food.
It
is
also
important
to
verify
consumer
tastes
when
selecting
flowers
for
human
nutrition.
Although
there
are
some
encouraging
results
on
the
nutraceu-
ticals
of
edible
flowers,
there
is
little
information
on
their
organoleptic
appreciation
by
consumers.
The
aim
of
this
work
is
twofold:
(i)
to
analyze
the
content
of
antioxidants
and
anthocyanins
in
some
well-known
ornamental
species,
and
(ii)
test
their
organoleptic
appreciation
by
free-tasters.
2.
Material
and
methods
2.1.
Plant
material
Twelve
species
of
cultivated
edible
flowers
(
Table
1
)
were
stud-
ied.
The
fresh
flowers
(
Fig.
1
)
were
collected
during
autumn
2011
(October)
and
spring
2012
(April)
from
a
greenhouse
cultivation
in
Torre
del
Lago
(LU)
in
north-west
Tuscany,
near
the
sea
(43
◦
85
N,
10
◦
27
E),
in
an
area
called
Versilia,
where
flowers
have
been
grown
for
ornamental
purposes
for
many
decades.
The
plants
were
kindly
provided
by
a
floriculture
company
(Carmazzi
Farm),
which
for
several
years
has
specialized
in
the
cultivation
and
sale
of
edible
flowers
grown
with
organic
agricultural
systems.
In
brief,
this
cultivation
was
carried
out
in
unheated
greenhouses
during
autumn
and
spring
(mean
temperature
about
15–25
◦
C)
in
sandy
soil
using
organic
fertilizers
and
without
pesticides.
In
addition,
the
agronomic
management
was
conducted
without
pesticides
and/or
growth
regulating
substances.
The
fully
open
flowers
were
collected
between
08.00
and
10.00
AM
and
placed
in
special
plastic
containers
(the
same
as
those
used
for
the
packets
on
sale).
Absorbent
paper
was
placed
at
the
bottom
of
these
containers
to
prevent
any
lymph
leakage
due
to
guttation,
thus
ensuring
optimal
conservation.
The
packs
were
immediately
placed
in
refrigerator
bags
and
stored
at
−
80
◦
C
on
the
same
day
(within
12.00
A.M.).
The
material
was
then
analyzed
within
3–4
weeks
from
collection.
2.2.
Laboratory
analysis
Both
the
antioxidant
activity
and
the
total
content
of
antho-
cyanins
were
expressed
on
a
fresh
weight
(FW)
basis.
Flower
samples
(1
g)
were
extracted
with
10
mL
methanol
80%
(v/v),
con-
taining
1%
of
HCl,
for
12
h
at
4
◦
C.
Antioxidant
activity
was
determined
on
the
extracts
by
the
FRAP
(ferric
ion
reducing
antioxidant
power)
assay
following
Pellegrini
et
al.
(2003)
.
A
calibration
curve
was
prepared
with
increasing
con-
centrations
of
FeSO
4
(reagent
grade,
Sigma–Aldrich),
and
results
were
expressed
as
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW.
Total
content
of
anthocyanins
was
determined
spectrophoto-
metrically
(UV-1204
Shimadzu,
Tokyo,
Japan).
by
measuring
the
absorbance
of
the
extracts
at
535
nm
(
Hrazdina
et
al.,
1982
).
Data
were
expressed
as
mg
cyn-3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW.
For
some
of
the
species
under
examination
(
Viola
×
wittrockiana
,
Petunia
×
hybrida
,
Antirrhinum
majus
and
Dianthus
×
barbatus
),
three
or
four
cultivars
were
available
which
differed
only
by
the
color
of
the
flower.
Therefore,
the
relationship
between
the
color
and
the
antioxidant
activity
or
the
concentration
of
anthocyanins
could
also
be
investigated.
2.3.
Sensory
analysis
The
sensory
panel
was
carried
out
in
April
2012.
Eighty-seven
free-tasters
(37
males
and
50
females,
mean
age
38
years)
were
recruited
by
adverts
among
the
university
community
(students,
teachers,
other
staff,
etc.)
from
the
Department
of
Agriculture,
Food
and
Environment
of
Pisa
University.
In
order
to
evaluate
only
the
real
sensory
profile
of
the
various
flowers,
it
was
decided
to
get
the
tasters
to
examine
the
flowers
without
any
condiments,
bread,
crackers,
etc.
After
a
careful
eval-
uation
of
the
perceived
flavors,
the
tasters
were
asked
to
fill
out
a
questionnaire
aimed
at
determining
the
performances
of
the
edible
flowers.
These
experiments
were
based
on
previous
experiences
of
taste
evaluation
performed
on
vegetables
(
Zhao
et
al.,
2007
)
and/or
fruits
(
Tobin
et
al.,
2013
).
Five
different
organoleptic
characteristics
(spiciness,
sweetness,
softness,
scent,
bitterness)
were
included
in
the
evaluation
scheme
and
were
expressed
in
a
scale
of
1–100.
The
data
enabled
the
sen-
sory
profile
to
be
highlighted
with
spider
plots
(
Johansson
et
al.,
1999
).
A
synthetic
evaluation
(scale
1–10)
for
each
flower
was
also
required
in
order
to
establish
the
effective
degree
of
appreciation
of
each
species.
Finally,
tasters
were
also
asked
to
determine
which
known
food
each
of
the
flowers
resembled.
2.4.
Statistical
analyses
The
experiments
were
replicated
three
times
in
each
experi-
mental
period
(autumn
and
spring).
Analysis
of
variance
(ANOVA)
in
a
completely
randomized
design
and
the
Student–Newman–Keuls
test
were
used
to
com-
pare
any
significant
differences
between
samples.
The
confidence
limits
used
were
based
on
95%
(
P
<
0.05).
The
lack
of
significance
between
the
data
of
the
laboratory
analyses
in
the
autumn
and
spring
enabled
them
to
be
grouped
into
a
single
media.
For
the
synthetic
taste
evaluation
(scale
1–10),
values
were
expressed
as
means
±
standard
deviations.
For
each
statistical
analysis,
commer-
cial
software
(CoHort
software,
Minneapolis,
MN)
was
used.
3.
Results
3.1.
Nutraceutical
analysis
Table
2
shows
the
antioxidant
activity
and
the
anthocyanin
con-
tent
of
the
various
edible
flowers.
The
antioxidant
power
of
the
edible
flowers
varied
within
a
very
wide
range,
encompassing
two
orders
of
magnitude.
The
strongest
antioxidant
activity
was
dis-
played
by
Tagetes
erecta,
which
reached
70.4
mol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW.
Similarly,
Fuchsia
hybrida
showed
a
very
high
value
(although
sig-
nificantly
lower),
which
reached
almost
50
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW.
Other
rather
high
values
were
also
shown
by
the
red-flowered
cultivars
of
D.
barbatus,
V.
wittrockiana
and
Pelargonium
peltatum,
with
antioxidant
powers
of
38.6,
36.5
and
34.7
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW,
respectively.
Values
of
the
antioxidant
power
in
the
range
20–30
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW
were
found
in
the
pink
cultivar
of
D.
barbatus
(29.1),
172
S.
Benvenuti
et
al.
/
Scientia
Horticulturae
199
(2016)
170–177
Table
1
Botanical
and
agronomic
information
on
the
tested
edible
flowers.
Species
Botanic
family
Biological
cycle
Origin
Colors
Cultivar
Ageratum
houstonianum
Asteraceae
Annual
Central
America
Blue
Tycoon
Blue
Antirrhinum
majus
Scrophulariaceae
Perennial
Europe,
Central
America,
North
Africa
Red
Montego
Red
Rose
Montego
rose
White
Montego
white
Begonia
semperflorens
Begoniaceae
Perennial
South
and
Central
America,
Africa,
South
Asia
Red
Eureka
Borago
officinalis
Boraginaceae
Annual
Mediterranean
environment
Blue
Wild
germplasm
Calendula
officinalis
Asteraceae
Perennial
South
Europe
Orange
Alice
Orange
Dianthus
×
barbatus
Caryophyllaceae
Perennial
South
Europe,
Asia
Red
Diabunda
Red
Rose
Diabunda
Rose
White
Dulce
White
Fuchsia
hybrida
Onagraceae
Perennial
South
America
Red
Coral
Pelargonium
peltatum
Geraniaceae
Perennial
Southern
Africa
Red
Tornado
Petunia
×
hybrida
Solanaceae
Annual
South
America
Red
Duvet
Red
Rose
Duvet
Pink
White
Duvet
White
Tagetes
erecta
Asteraceae
Perennial
Central
America
Orange
Moonstruck
Tropaeolum
majus
Tropaeolaceae
Perennial
South
America
Orange
African
Queen
Viola
×
wittrockiana
Violaceae
Annual
Europe,
Western
Asia
Red
Delta
Pure
Red
Blue
Karma
True
Blue
Yellow
Mammoth
Prima
Yellorina
White
Mariposa
White
Fig.
1.
Morphology
of
the
tested
edible
flowers:
(1)
Ageratum
houstonianum
,
(2)
Antirrhinum
majus
,
(3)
Begonia
semperflorens
,
(4)
Borago
officinalis
,
(5)
Calendula
officinalis
,
(6)
Dianthus
×
barbatus
,
(7)
Fuchsia
hybrid
,
(8)
Pelargonium
peltatum
,
(9)
Petunia
×
hybrid
,
(10)
Tagetes
erecta
,
(11)
Tropaeolum
majus
,
(12)
Viola
×
wittrockiana.
S.
Benvenuti
et
al.
/
Scientia
Horticulturae
199
(2016)
170–177
173
Table
2
Antioxidant
activity
(mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW)
and
anthocyanin
content
(mg
cyn-
3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW)
of
the
edible
flowers.
The
±
standard
deviation
of
the
means
are
shown.
Means
followed
by
different
letters
in
the
same
row
are
not
statistically
different
for
p
<
0.05.
Species
Flower
color
Antioxidant
activity
(mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW)
Anthocyanin
content
(mg
cyn-
3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW)
Ageratum
houstonianum
Blue
27.85
±
3.3
d
2.99
±
0.2
d
Antirrhinum
majus
Red
21.18
±
2.6
d
7.37
±
0.5
b
Rose
9.85
±
1.1
e
9.73
±
0.5
b
White
4.71
±
0.6
f
0.70
±
0.1
f
Begonia
semperflorens
Red
13.24
±
1.7
e
5.09
±
0.4
c
Borago
officinalis
Blue
0.55
±
0.1
g
1.43
±
0.1
e
Calendula
officinalis
Orange
3.68
±
0.3
f
0.47
±
0.1
f
Dianthus
×
barbatus
Red
38.67
±
3.0
c
13.35
±
1.2
a
Rose
29.12
±
2.3
d
10.61
±
1.0
a
White
4.36
±
0.8
f
0.73
±
0.1
f
Fuchsia
hybrida
Red
47.52
±
3.2
b
7.58
±
0.6
b
Pelargonium
peltatum
Red
34.78
±
2.9
c
12.52
±
1.1
a
Petunia
×
hybrida
Red
10.22
±
0.8
e
14.44
±
1.2
a
Rose
9.45
±
0.6
e
12.85
±
1.1
a
White
5.40
±
1.3
f
2.5
±
1.1
d
Tagetes
erecta
Orange
70.42
±
4.1
a
0.75
±
0.1
f
Tropaeolum
majus
Orange
10.05
±
0.8
e
8.27
±
0.7
b
Viola
×
wittrockiana
Red
36.55
±
3.0
c
12.4
±
1.1
a
Blue
29.12
±
2.1
d
13.6
±
1.2
a
Yellow
3.31
±
0.3
g
2.93
±
0.2
d
White
0.82
±
0.1
g
0.35
±
0.1
f
in
blue
flowered
V.
wittrockiana
(29.1)
and
Ageratum
houstoni-
anum
(27.8),
and
in
the
red
variety
of
A.
majus
(21.2).
Fairly
lower
results,
in
descending
order,
were
obtained
for
red-flowered
Bego-
nia
semperflorens
(13.2)
and
P.
hybrida
(10.2),
for
orange-flowered
Trapaeolum
majus
(10.0),
for
pink-flowered
A.
majus
(9.8)
and
P.
hybrida
(9.4).
A
weaker
antioxidant
power
was
displayed
by
three
white
cultivars
(
P.
hybrida,
5.4;
A.
majus
,
4.7;
D.
barbatus
,
4.4),
along
with
Calendula
officinalis
(orange,
3.7).
Finally,
the
antioxi-
dant
activity
values
of
yellow
(3.3)
and
white
(0.8)
V.wittrockiana
,
and
especially
Borago
officinalis
(blue,
0.5)
were
the
lowest
ones
among
the
samples
under
examination.
Similarly
to
the
antioxidant
power,
the
anthocyanin
amount
showed
great
diversity
depending
on
the
species
considered
(
Table
2
).
Nevertheless,
one
third
of
the
flowers
had
statistically
similar
high
concentrations
of
anthocyanins,
exceeding
10
mg
cyn-
3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW.
These
included
the
red
and
pink
cultivars
of
D.
barbatus
(13.3
and
10.6,
respectively)
and
P.
hybrida
(14.4
and
12.8,
respectively),
along
with
P.
peltatum
(red,
12.5)
and
the
blue
cultivar
of
V.
wittrockiana
(13.6).
Concentrations
ranging
from
5
to
10
mg
cyn-3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW
were
found
in
the
red
and
pink
cul-
tivars
of
A.
majus
(7.4
and
9.7,
respectively)
and
in
T.
majus
(orange,
8.3),
followed
by
B.
semperflorens
(red,
5.1).
The
range
1–5
mg
cyn-
3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW
included
the
similar
concentrations
of
blue
A.
houstonianum
,
yellow
V.
wittrockiana
and
white
P.
hybrida
(3.0),
2.9
and
2.5,
respectively
and
that
of
blue
B.
officinalis
(1.4).
Extremely
low
values,
below
1
mg
cyn-3-glu
eq.
100
g
−
1
FW,
were
displayed
by
three
white
varieties
(
D.
barbatus
,
0,7;
A.
majus
,
0,7;
V.
vittrock-
iana
,
0.3)
and
two
orange
cultivars
(
T.
erecta
,
0.7;
C.
officinalis
,
0.5).
3.2.
Organoleptic
performances
Fig.
2
shows
the
sensory
profiles
of
the
various
edible
flowers
following
the
panel
test.
The
same
graphic
processing
of
a
similar
Table
3
Synthetic
overall
evaluation
(scale
1–10)
and
prevailing
reference
flavor
of
a
known
food.
The
±
standard
deviation
of
the
means
are
shown.
Species
Tasting
evaluation
(1–10
scale)
Flavor
similarity
to
known
food
Ageratum
houstonianum
7.8
±
0.4
Carrot
Antirrhinum
majus
6.2
±
0.3
Chicory
Begonia
semperflorens
7.1
±
0.3
Lemon
Borago
officinalis
7.0
±
0.3
Cucumber
Calendula
officinalis
5.5
±
0.4
Saffron
Dianthus
×
barbatus
6.4
±
0.2
Cloves
Fuchsia
hybrida
5.2
±
0.3
Unknown
Pelargonium
peltatum
6.1
±
0.3
Grapefruit
Petunia
×
hybrida
6.3
±
0.3
Unknown
Tagetes
erecta
6.0
±
0.2
Pomegranate
Tropaeolum
majus
8.2
±
0.4
Radish
Viola
×
wittrockiana
7.3
±
0.3
Unknown
investigation
was
adopted
(
Johansson
et
al.,
1999
).
First
of
all
it
should
be
noted
that
the
color
of
flowers
did
not
determine
any
different
perception
(data
not
shown)
and
consequently
the
data
were
reported
only
in
relation
to
the
studied
species.
In
terms
of
spiciness,
T.
majus
showed
the
highest
values
fol-
lowed
by
A.
houstorianum,
C.
officinalis,
B.
semperflorens
and
P.
peltatum
.
In
contrast,
low
values
were
reached
by
B.
officinalis,
P.
hybrida
and
V.
vittrockiana
.
As
regards
the
flowers’
sweetness,
the
species
with
the
best
performances
were
T.
majus
and
B.
offici-
nalis
and,
to
a
lesser
extent,
also
V.
vittrockiana
.
All
other
species,
except
C.
officinalis
,
were
not
perceived
as
sweet
in
the
taste
test.
Flower
softness
was
judged
as
excellent
for
T.
majus,
V.
vittrock-
iana
and
P.
hybrida
with
almost
maximum
range
values.
Satisfactory
organoleptic
evaluations
of
softness
were
also
detected
in
A.
majus
and
P.
peltatum
.
On
the
other
hand,
the
flowers
of
A.
houstorianum,
F.
hybrida,
D.
barbatus,
T.
erecta
and
C.
officinalis
were
described
as
tough.
In
terms
of
the
flowers’
scent,
V.
vittrockiana,
T.
majus
and
P.
hybrida
showed
an
excellent
performance
since
they
reached
the
approximate
maximum
values.
Suboptimal,
but
however
satisfac-
tory
results,
were
found
in
terms
of
the
scent
of
A.
houstorianum,
D.
barbatus
and
B.
semperflorens
.
In
contrast
A.
majus,
T.
erecta,
P.
peltatum
B.
officinalis,
F.
hybrida
and
C.
officinalis
were
reported
as
not
being
very
fragrant.
The
majority
of
the
species
such
as
B.
semperflorens
(above
all)
,
A.
houstonianum,
D.
barbatus,
P.
peltatum,
F.
hybrida,
C.
officinalis
and
T.
erecta
were
reported
as
being
notably
bitter.
Intermediate
values
of
bitterness
were
reported
for
P.
hybrida,
A.
majus
and
V.
vittrockiana
.
B.
officinalis
and
T.
majus
flowers
were
considered
to
be
unpleasantly
bitter.
A
comprehensive
assessment
(0–10
scale)
was
included
in
the
questionnaire
regarding
the
sensory
attractiveness
of
the
different
flowers.
Table
3
shows
these
assessments
followed
by
the
prevailing
ref-
erence
flavor
perceived
as
similar
to
a
known
food.
T.
majus
was
regarded
the
most
attractive,
since
overall
it
scored
8.3,
with
a
taste
that
was
judged
to
be
similar
to
radish.
This
was
the
highest
value
among
the
twelve
species
tested,and
was
followed
by
those
of
A.
haustorianum
and
V.
wittrockiana
(7.3
and
7.8,
respectively).
The
flowers
of
A.
haustorianum
were
associated
with
the
taste
of
car-
rot,
but
V.
wittrockiana
did
not
remind
tasters
of
any
known
food.
The
flowers
of
B.
semperflorens
and
B.
officinalis
were
also
judged
to
have
a
good
taste
since
they
achieved
ratings
of
7.1
and
7.2,
respectively.
For
B.
semperflorens,
the
flower’s
flavor
was
associ-
ated
with
lemon,
and
B.
officinalis
with
cucumber.
D.
barbatus,
P.
hybrida,
A.
majus,
P.
peltatum
and
T.
erecta
were
scored
6.4,
6.3,
62,
6.1
and
6.0,
respectively.
For
P.
peltatum,
the
flavor
was
defined
as
unknown.
The
others
(in
order
of
citation
respectively)
were
found
174
S.
Benvenuti
et
al.
/
Scientia
Horticulturae
199
(2016)
170–177
Fig.
2.
Sensory
profile
(spicy,
sweet,
soft,
scent,
bitter
expressed
as
percentage)
of
the
twelve
flower
species.
For
this
organoleptic
test,
the
flower
colors
shown
in
Table
1
were
selected.
to
be
similar,
or
at
least
comparable,
to
the
following:
cloves,
grass,
grapefruit,
and
pomegranate.
Despite
C.
officinalis
was
associated
with
the
delicate
taste
of
saffron,
it
only
scored
5.5.
Finally,
the
flowers
of
F.
hybrida
were
considered
to
be
rather
tough
and
with
no
known
flavor,
and
thus
only
scored
5.0.
4.
Discussion
4.1.
Nutraceutical
analysis
The
antioxidant
power
of
the
edible
flowers
was
very
high
com-
pared
with
literature
data
on
vegetables
and
fruits
obtained
by
means
of
the
FRAP
assay.
For
example,
a
range
of
0.02–2.44
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW
was
reported
for
a
screening
of
common
vegeta-
bles
(
Llorach
et
al.,
2008;
Wold
et
al.,
2006
).
Fruits
have
often
higher
antioxidant
capacities
compared
with
vegetables.
For
example,
the
tissues
(peel
or
pulp)
of
five
different
apple
cultivars
showed
val-
ues
of
the
antioxidant
power
in
the
range
from
1.6
to
21.0
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW
(
Henrìquez
et
al.,
2010
).
Guo
et
al.
(2003)
tested
the
antioxidant
power
of
28
fruits
commonly
consumed
in
China,
distinct
for
peel,
pulp
and
seed
tissues.
With
the
exception
of
the
peel
tissue
of
white
pomegranate,
which
showed
an
antioxidant
power
of
82
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW,
all
the
other
fruit
tissues
displayed
values
of
this
parameter
similar
or
lower
than
those
that
we
observed
in
our
samples,
ranging
from
0.16
(watermelon
pulp)
to
55.5
(red
rose
grape
seeds).
Goji,
a
fruit
originating
from
Asia
whose
market
has
been
expanding
worldwide
during
the
last
decade,
was
recently
found
to
have
an
average
antioxidant
power
of
1.9
mmol
FeSO
4
100
g
−
1
FW,
comparable
with
those
of
traditional
fruits
(
Donno
et
al.,
2015
).
Similarly
to
goji,
non-traditional
food
that
is
introduced
on
the
market
is
often
recommended
for
its
nutraceutical
properties,
such
as
the
antioxidant
capacity.
Hence,
according
to
our
results,
edible
S.
Benvenuti
et
al.
/
Scientia
Horticulturae
199
(2016)
170–177
175
flowers
could
be
considered
as
a
non-traditional
food
capable
to
satisfy
this
requirement,
with
an
antioxidant
capacity
that
is
often
similar
or
higher
than
those
of
fruit
tissues.
For
this
reason,
the
agronomic
perspective
of
edible
flowers
could
be
similar
to
that
of
exotic
fruits,
like
Pitahaya
(
Le
Bellec
et
al.,
2006
).
In
addition,
flowers
usually
display
very
intense
colors
that
could
contribute
to
increase
their
appeal
toward
the
consumer
(
Kelley
et
al.,
2001b
).
Table
2
shows
that
the
flower’s
color
plays
a
role
not
only
on
the
content
of
antocyanins,
but
also
on
the
antioxidant
power.
Except
for
B.
officinalis
,
the
intense
colors
of
the
flowers
(especially
red
and
blue)
are
good
indicators
for
both
parameters
in
the
tested
flowers.
Specifically,
red
color
is
generally
associated
to
high
values
of
the
antioxidant
power
and
white
color
to
the
lowest
ones.
Indeed
the
higher
values
of
the
red-flowered
cultivars,
compared
to
the
others,
were
statistically
significant
in
V.
vittrockiana,
A.
majus
and
D.
barbatus.
On
the
other
hand,
in
P.
hybrida
both
red
and
pink
cul-
tivars
displayed
a
much
higher
antioxidant
power
than
the
white
cultivars.
The
blue
color
of
V.
vittrockiana
also
showed
higher
val-
ues
than
the
lighter
colors
(yellow
and
white).
These
results
suggest
that
the
antioxidant
activity
is
partly
due
to
anthocyanins.
However,
some
species
with
a
high
antioxidant
activity
are
not
characterized
by
a
high
anthocyanin
content,
and
consequently
this
antioxidant
power
is
derived
from
other
phytochemicals.
One
example
is
T.
erecta
,
which
showed
a
very
low
anthocyanin
content,
in
spite
of
a
strong
antioxidant
power.
This
imbalance
between
antioxidant
power
and
antocyanin
content
indicates,
at
least
in
this
species,
that
the
high
antioxidant
activity
is
primar-
ily
due
to
phytochemicals
such
as
flavonoids,
especially
quercetin
and
rutin
(
Kaisoon
et
al.,
2011
).
Similarly,
V.
vittrockiana
and
T.
majus
contain
antioxidants
having
a
different
chemical
nature
from
anthocyanin,
such
as
vitamin
C
(
Proteggente
et
al.,
2002
),
polyphe-
nols
(
Paganga
et
al.,
1999;
Kaisoon
et
al.,
2012
),
carotenoids
(
Rao
and
Agarwal,
1999
),
chlorogenic
acid
(
Shi
et
al.,
2009
).
For
exam-
ple
the
xanthophyll
(lutein)
content
was
found
to
be
high
in
T.
majus
flowers
(
Niizu
and
Rodriguez-Amaya,
2005
),
and
capable
to
confer
a
high
antioxidant
power
to
this
species
(
Garzón
and
Wrolstad,
2009
).
Moreover,
the
variety
of
V.
vittrockiana
with
blue
flowers
had
lower
antioxidant
power
than
the
red-flowered
vari-
ety,
although
both
were
characterized
by
a
similar
concentration
of
anthocyanins.
This
suggests
the
presence
of
additional
antioxidant
phytochemicals
in
the
red
cultivar,
probably
carotenoids.
In
fact
in
this
species,
the
cultivars
with
red
flowers
were
found
to
be
rich
in
carotenoids,
as
shown
by
spectroscopy
studies
(
Gamsjaeger
et
al.,
2011
).
However,
in
spite
of
these
generally
species-dependent
phyto-
chemicals,
most
of
the
nutraceutical
features
are
also
due
to
color
of
the
flower
cultivars,
which
is
strongly
linked
to
pigment
content.
This
fully
confirms
experiments
conducted
in
flowers
of
Althaea
officinalis,
in
which
a
higher
antioxidant
activity
was
found
in
the
red
flower
varieties
than
in
other
cultivars
with
lighter
colors.
This
activity
slightly
decreases
in
the
pink
colored
variety
and
then
fell
in
white
flowers
(
Sadighara
et
al.,
2012
).
The
antocyanin
content
followed
the
same
trend
as
a
function
of
the
color,
decreasing
in
the
order
red–pink–white.
The
results
reported
in
Table
2
also
evidence
the
importance
of
flower
color
in
terms
of
anthocyanin
content
within
the
same
species.
As
expected,
a
higher
antocyanin
concentration
in
the
red
or
pink
cultivars
than
in
the
white
ones
was
confirmed
in
the
species
under
examination:
V.
vittrockiana
(where
the
blue
variety
had
a
similar
antocyanin
content
to
the
red
one),
P.
hybrida
,
D.
barba-
tus
and
A.
majus
.
In
any
case,
as
with
the
antioxidant
power,
the
white
color
was
associated
with
the
lowest
values
of
anthocyanin
concentration.
In
particular,
in
V.
vittrockiana
and
D.
barbatus
the
anthocyanin
contents
of
the
white
flowers
were
well
below
10%
compared
with
the
related
values
found
in
the
red
ones.
4.2.
Organoleptic
performances
The
studied
flowers
showed
a
high
taste
biodiversity.
Although
the
prevailing
gastronomic
role
of
flowers
is
to
make
the
chromatic
dishes
attractive,
they
are
also
able
to
confer
a
peculiar
taste
and
improve
their
palatability.
In
our
screening,
C.
officinalis
and
F.
hybrida
were
the
only
species
whose
flowers
were
quite
difficult
to
masticate.
This
seems
the
main
reason
for
which
the
flowers
were
not
greatly
appreciated
(at
least
as
raw
and
undressed
food,
as
in
the
sensory
analysis).
In
all
the
other
species,
the
preference
resulted
generally
from
the
overall
combination
of
softness,
taste
and
flavor,
although
some
flowers,
such
as
A.
majus,
P.
hybrida,
A.
houstorianum
and
B.
officinalis
were
mainly
characterized
by
only
one
parameter.
On
the
other
hand,
T.
majus
,
which
had
the
highest
score
in
the
sensory
analysis
(
Table
3
),
showed
a
strong
spiciness
together
with
sweetness,
soft-
ness
and
scent.
Its
flavor
was
associated
with
radish,
therefore
the
taste
of
this
vegetable
could
be
surprisingly
perceived
in
a
soft
and
unusual
version.
Similarly,
both
V.
vittrockiana
and
D.
barbatus
were
appreciated
for
the
combination
of
two
features
(softness/scent
or
bitterness/scent,
respectively).
The
appreciation
levels
of
B.
semperflorens,
P.
peltatum
and
T.
erecta
,
which
were
strongly
dependent
on
personal
taste,
were
probably
due
to
the
unusual
taste
defined
as
“acidic”,
since
their
flavors
were
associated
with
lemon,
grapefruit
and
pomegranate,
respectively.
Thus,
an
additional
variety
of
tastes
and
aromas
pro-
vided
by
edible
flowers
could
increase
the
biodiversity
of
sensory
profiles
that
are
required
to
food
(
Martin
et
al.,
2014;
Lease
et
al.,
2015
).
The
combination
of
flowers
with
common
vegetables
or
other
food
could
generate
new
and
appreciated
tastes
(
Chambers
and
Koppel,
2013
).
Within
this
frame,
possible
taste
affinities
or
con-
trasts
with
wine
could
also
promote
an
interest
on
edible
flowers
as
sensory
“elicitors”.
For
example,
recent
studies
have
been
published
concerning
the
consumer
perception
on
food-beverage
pairings
(
Paulsen
et
al.,
2015
),
or
the
taste
interaction
between
vegetables
and
wine
(
Koone
et
al.,
2014
).
Anyway,
the
consumption
of
edible
flowers
is
strongly
linked
to
food
education,
as
taste
preference
is
developed
early
in
childhood
(
Mennella,
2014
).
Finally,
it
is
important
to
underline
that
the
flowers
used
in
this
study
had
been
obtained
by
means
of
organic
cropping.
This
aspect
could
play
a
critical
role
in
order
to
attract
possible
con-
sumers
toward
edible
flowers
as
new
food
(
Kelley
and
Biernbaum,
2000
),
since
organic
cropping
can
properly
preserve
and
ensure
both
nutraceutical
properties
and
food
safety.
5.
Conclusions
It
is
difficult
to
consider
both
nutraceutical
and
organoleptic
quality
of
edible
flowers
in
predicting
which
species
could
be
the
most
promising
ones
in
a
hypothetical
market
dedicated
to
this
new
food.
Organoleptic
aspects
are
subjective
and
therefore
susceptible
to
change
depending
on
the
tastes
of
the
consumers
(and
on
the
geographical
areas
of
the
world)
and
also
on
how
the
flowers
are
cooked
and
seasoned.
Nevertheless,
there
is
no
doubt
that
A.
hous-
torianum,
B.
semperflorens,
V.
vittrockiana
and
T.
majus
are
very
attractive,
and
satisfy
at
the
same
time
health
requirements
due
to
their
high
antioxidant
levels.
The
flowers
of
T.
majus
have
already
been
investigated
for
the
postharvest
physiology
(
Friedman
et
al.,
2005
)
and
for
the
thermal
requirements
for
their
storage
(
Kelley
et
al.,
2003
).
The
cultivars
with
the
most
intensely
colored
flowers
(such
as
red
and
blue)
appear
to
be
the
most
suited
to
a
gastronomic
and
nutraceutical
evolution
in
terms
of
the
discovery
of
new
food
and
176
S.
Benvenuti
et
al.
/
Scientia
Horticulturae
199
(2016)
170–177
new
dishes.
Moreover
they
could
have
an
interesting
application
as
natural
colorants,
representing
an
alternative
to
the
use
of
synthetic
dyes
in
foods
(
Giusti
and
Wrolstad,
2003
).
Their
organic
production
appears
to
be
an
additional
agronomic
opportunity
that
fully
meets
the
future
needs
of
food
aimed
at
improving
the
quality
of
human
nutrition.
Further
research
will
be
required
to
improve
other
nutraceuti-
cal
parameters
(carotenoids,
micronutrients,
vitamins,
etc.)
and
to
offer
them
as
an
additional
source
of
vegetable
biodiversity
for
the
future
scenario
of
growing
health
needs